PROCESS OF DVD RECORDING




DVD_Recording_


mastering process in usa method
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DVD-R Technology

DVD-R Technology DVD-R is a write-once format, like CD-R, uses a constant linear velocity rotation technique to maximize the storage density on the disc surface. Recording begins at the inner radius and ends at the outer. Rotation of the disc therefore varies from 1,648 RPM to 648, depending on a record/playback head's position over the surface.

Recording on DVD-R discs is accomplished through the use of a dye polymer recording layer that is permanently transformed by a highly focused red laser beam. This dye polymer substance is spin-coated onto a clear polycarbonate substrate that forms one side of the "body" of a complete disc. The substrate is injection molded, and has a microscopic, "pre-groove" spiral track formed onto its surface. This groove is used by a DVD-R drive to guide the recording laser beam during the writing process, and also contains recorded information after writing is completed. A thin layer of metal is then sputtered onto the recording layer so that a reading laser can be reflected off the disc during playback. A protective layer is then applied to the metal surface, which prepares the side for the bonding process.

The recording action takes place by momentarily exposing the recording layer to a high power (approximately 10 milliwatt) laser beam that is tightly focused onto its surface. As the dye polymer layer is heated, it is permanently altered such that microscopic marks are formed in the pre-groove. These recorded marks differ in length depending on how long the write laser is turned on and off, which is how information is stored on the disc. The light sensitivity of the recording layer has been tuned to an appropriate wavelength of light so that exposure to ambient light or playback lasers will not damage a recording. Playback occurs by focusing a lower power laser of the same approximate wavelength (635 or 650 nm) onto the surface of the disc. The "land" areas between marks are reflective, meaning that most of the light is returned to the player's optical head. Conversely, recorded marks are not very reflective, meaning that very little of the light is returned. This "on-off" pattern is thereby interpreted as the modulated signal, which is then decoded into the original user data by the playback device.

Recording Process

Blank DVD-R discs are recorded in a special drive that is controlled by a host computer. The recording process is orchestrated by application software that allows a user to specify which files will be transferred to the disc as well as controlling the actual recording itself.

All DVD discs, recordable or not, must have three basic areas recorded on them: lead-in, user data and lead-out. The lead-in and lead-out areas are boundaries that indicate to a playback device where the inner and outer limits of a recording are respectively. They contain no user accessible information, but are critical to the proper functioning of a disc.

There are two methods of writing a DVD-R disc: disc-at-once and incremental writing.

Disc-at-once, as its name implies, is the process of writing an entire disc's worth of data at one time. Data must be consistently provided by a host computer at a full 11.08 megabits per second during any recording to avoid buffer underrun errors. The occurrences of underruns can be minimized by the use of a large writing buffer memory in a DVD-R drive. DVD-R disc-at-once writing is performed such that the lead-in, data area and lead-out areas are all written sequentially. This differs from CD-R disc-at-once writing, where the data area is written first, followed by the lead-in and lead out areas.

Incremental writing allows a user to add files directly to a DVD-R disc one recording at a time instead of requiring that all files be accumulated on a hard disk prior to writing as with the disc-at-once method. The minimum recording size must be at least 32 kilobytes, (even if the file to be recorded is smaller) as this is the minimum error correction code (ECC) block size for DVD. Obviously, a disc that is being written to incrementally cannot be considered a complete volume until the final information has been stored or the disc capacity has been reached. The lead-in and lead-out boundary areas therefore cannot be written until either of these two events occur. Such an "unfinalized" disc (one without lead-in, lead-out and complete file system data) can only be read by a DVD-R drive until this process can be completed. After finalization, a disc can then be read by a destination playback device, but can no longer have data added to it.

CD-R Versus DVD-R

The primary advantages of DVD-R drives, are higher capacity and compatibility with all DVD players and drives. To help achieve increase in storage density over CD-R, two key components of the writing hardware needed to be altered: the wavelength of the recording laser and the numerical aperture (n.a.) of the lens that focuses it.

Rewritable DVD

The rewritable DVD's specification is based on input from a wide range of sources, including end users, PC manufacturers, CD- and DVD-ROM drive manufacturers, media manufacturers and software developers. The DVD specification is designed to offer data-storage and distribution markets a smooth migration path from CD to DVD.

As rewritable DVD technology is new, there isn't an unic format yet. Different companies applay diffferent formats. At the moment there are three type of rewritable DVD. These are: DVD-RAM, DVD-RW and DVD-R/W.

Because of this, compatibility is the problem of recordable DVD. To override this problem the DVD+RW group offers a solution for future data-storage requirements, By eliminating the need for a caddy, ensuring CD-R compatibility and offering a slightly higher capacity.

DVD VIDEO

DVD Video is the new way in home entertainment. A single DVD Video disc can hold an entire movie on one side while bringing together the high-quality, digital surround sound of compact discs with crisp, high-resolution video. As a system it consists of a mastering system, a physical distribution medium (the disc itself) and a player

The Players

The players consist of the following major components:

• Disc Reader Mechanism: consists of the motor which spins the disc and the laser which reads the information.
• The DVD-DSP (digital signal processor): an integrated circuit that translates the laser pulses back into electrical form that other parts of the decoder can use.
• The Digital Audio/Video Decoder: This complex integrated circuit reconstitutes the compressed data on the disc, converting it into studio-quality video and CD-quality audio for output to TVs and stereo systems.
• Micro controller: This device controls the operation of the player, translating user inputs from the remote control or front panel into commands for the audio/video decoder and the disc reader mechanism. The micro controller would also be responsible for implementing parental lockout, dialing distributors for access codes and controlling decryption.

DVD Player Architecture

assignment#2

CPU Socket Package Type





S.E.C.C. Package Type
S.E.C.C. is short for Single Edge Contact Cartridge. To connect to the motherboard, the processor is inserted into a slot. Instead of having pins, it uses goldfinger contacts, which the processor uses to carry its signals back and forth. The S.E.C.C. is covered with a metal shell that covers the top of the entire cartridge assembly. The back of the cartridge is a thermal plate that acts as a heatsink. Inside the S.E.C.C., most processors have a printed circuit board called the substrate that links together the processor, the L2 cache and the bus termination circuits. The S.E.C.C. package was used in the Intel Pentium II processors, which have 242 contacts and the Pentium® II Xeon™ and Pentium III Xeon processors, which have 330 contacts.



S.E.C.C.2 Package Type
The S.E.C.C.2 package is similar to the S.E.C.C. package except the S.E.C.C.2 uses less casing and does not include the thermal plate. The S.E.C.C.2 package was used in some later versions of the Pentium II processor and Pentium III processor (242 contacts).

S.E.P. Package Type
S.E.P. is short for Single Edge Processor. The S.E.P. package is similar to a S.E.C.C. or S.E.C.C.2 package but it has no covering. In addition, the substrate (circuit board) is visible from the bottom side. The S.E.P. package was used by early Intel Celeron processors, which have 242 contacts.


PGA Package Type
PGA is short for Pin Grid Array, and these processors have pins that are inserted into a socket. To improve thermal conductivity, the PGA uses a nickel plated copper heat slug on top of the processor. The pins on the bottom of the chip are staggered. In addition, the pins are arranged in a way that the processor can only be inserted one way into the socket. The PGA package is used by the Intel Xeon™ processor, which has 603 pins.



PPGA Package Type
PPGA is short for Plastic Pin Grid Array, and these processors have pins that are inserted into a socket. To improve thermal conductivity, the PPGA uses a nickel plated copper heat slug on top of the processor. The pins on the bottom of the chip are staggered. In addition, the pins are arranged in a way that the processor can only be inserted one way into the socket. The PPGA package is used by early Intel Celeron processors, which have 370 pins.



OOI Package Type
OOI is short for OLGA. OLGA stands for Organic Land Grid Array. The OLGA chips also use a flip chip design, where the processor is attached to the substrate facedown for better signal integrity, more efficient heat removal and lower inductance. The OOI then has an Integrated Heat Spreader (IHS) that helps heatsink dissipation to a properly attached fan heatsink. The OOI is used by the Pentium 4 processor, which has 423 pins.




FC-PGA Package Type
The FC-PGA package is short for flip chip pin grid array, which have pins that are inserted into a socket. These chips are turned upside down so that the die or the part of the processor that makes up the computer chip is exposed on the top of the processor. By having the die exposed allows the thermal solution can be applied directly to the die, which allows for more efficient cooling of the chip. To enhance the performance of the package by decoupling the power and ground signals, FC-PGA processors have discrete capacitors and resistors on the bottom of the processor, in the capacitor placement area (center of processor). The pins on the bottom of the chip are staggered. In addition, the pins are arranged in a way that the processor can only be inserted one way into the socket. The FC-PGA package is used in Pentium® III and Intel® Celeron® processors, which use 370 pins.





FC-PGA2 Package Type
FC-PGA2 packages are similar to the FC-PGA package type, except these processors also have an Integrated Heat Sink (IHS). The integrated heat sink is attached directly to the die of the processor during manufacturing. Since the IHS makes a good thermal contact with the die and it offers a larger surface area for better heat dissipation, it can significantly increase thermal conductivity. The FC-PGA2 package is used in Pentium III and Intel Celeron processor (370 pins) and the Pentium 4 processor (478 pins).


FC-LGA4 Package Type
The FC-LGA4 package is used with Pentium® 4 processors designed for the LGA775 socket. FC-LGA4 is short for Flip Chip Land Grid Array 4. FC (Flip Chip) means that the processor die is on top of the substrate on the opposite side from the LAND contacts. LGA (LAND Grid Array) refers to how the processor die is attached to the substrate. The number 4 stands for the revision number of the package.

This package consists of a processor core mounted on a substrate land-carrier. An integrated Heat Spreader (IHS) is attached to the package substrate and core and serves as the mating surface for the processor component thermal solution such as a heatsink.You may also see references to processors in the 775-LAND package. This refers to the number of contacts that the new package contains that interface with the LGA775 socket.

The pictures below include the LAND Slide Cover (LSC). This black cover protects the processor contacts from damage and contamination and should be retained and placed on the processor whenever it is removed from the LGA775 socket.


CPU SOCKET

The Socket 370 processor socket, a ZIF type PGA socket

A CPU socket or CPU slot is a connector on a computer's motherboard that accepts a CPU and forms an electrical interface with it. As of 2007, most desktop and server computers, particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture, include socketed processors.

Most CPU-sockets interfaces are based on the pin grid array (PGA) architecture, in which short, stiff pins on the underside of the processor package mate with holes in the socket. To minimize the risk of bent pins, zero insertion force (ZIF) sockets allow the processor to be inserted without any resistance, then grip the pins firmly to ensure a reliable contact after a lever is flipped.

As of 2007, several current and upcoming socket designs use land grid array (LGA) technology instead. In this design, it is the socket which contains pins. The pins contact pads or lands on the bottom of the processor package.

In the late 1990s, many x86 processors fit into slots, rather than sockets. CPU slots are single-edged connectors similar to expansion slots, into which a PCB holding a processor is inserted. Slotted CPU packages offered two advantages: L2 cache memory could be upgraded by installing an additional chip onto the processor PCB, and processor insertion and removal was often easier. However, slotted packages require longer traces between the CPU and chipset, and therefore became unsuitable as clock speeds passed 500 MHz. Slots were abandoned with the introduction of AMD's Socket A and Intel's Socket 370.

Motherboard form Factor

The form factor of the motherboard describes its general shape, what sorts of cases and power supplies it can use, and its physical organization. For example, a company can make two motherboards that have basically the same functionality but that use a different form factor, and the only real differences will be the physical layout of the board, the position of the components, etc. In fact, many companies do exactly this, they have for example a baby AT version and an ATX version.












AT and Baby AT

Up until recently, the AT and baby AT form factors were the most common form factor in the motherboard world. These two variants differ primarily in width: the older full AT board is 12" wide. This means it won't typically fit into the commonly used "mini" desktop or minitower cases. There are very few new motherboards on the market that use the full AT size. It is fairly common in older machines, 386 class or earlier. One of the major problems with the width of this board (aside from limiting its use in smaller cases) is that a good percentage of the board "overlaps" with the drive bays. This makes installation, troubleshooting and upgrading more difficult.

The Baby AT motherboard was, through 1997, the most common form factor on the market. After three years and a heavy marketing push from Intel, the ATX form factor is now finally overtaking the AT form factor and from here out will be the most popular form factor for new systems. AT and Baby AT are not going anywhere, however, because there are currently just so many baby AT cases, power supplies and motherboards on the market. These will need an upgrade path and I believe that at least some companies will make motherboards for the newer technology in AT form factor for some time, to fill this upgrade market demand.

A Baby AT motherboard is 8.5" wide and nominally 13" long. The reduced width means much less overlap in most cases with the drive bays, although there usually is still some overlap at the front of the case. There are three rows of mounting holes in the board; the first runs along the back of the board where the bus slots and keyboard connector are; the second runs through the middle of the board; and the third runs along the front of the board near where the drives are mounted. One problem with baby AT boards is that many newer ones reduce cost by reducing the size of the board. While the width is quite standard, many newer motherboards are only 11" or even 10" long. This can lead to mounting problems, because the third row of holes on the motherboard won't line up with the row on the case. (Some reduce or skip the third row entirely). Fortunately, it is almost always possible to solidly mount the motherboard using only the first two rows of holes, and then using stubbed spacers for the third row. See the Motherboard Physical Installation Procedure for more perspective on these issues.

Baby AT motherboards are distinguished by their shape, and usually by the presence of a single, full-sized keyboard connector soldered onto the board. The serial and parallel port connectors are almost always attached using cables that go between the physical connectors mounted on the case, and pin "headers" located on the motherboard.

The AT and Baby AT form factors put the processor socket(s)/slot(s) and memory sockets at the front of the motherboard, and long expansion cards were designed to extend over them. When this form factor was designed, over ten years ago, this worked fine: processors and memory chips were small and put directly onto the motherboard, and clearance wasn't an issue. However, now we have memory in SIMM/DIMM sockets, not directly inserted onto the motherboard, and we have larger processors that need big heat sinks and fans mounted on them. Since the processor is still often in the same place, the result can be that the processor+heat sink+fan combination often blocks as many as three of the expansion slots on the motherboard! Most newer Baby AT style motherboards have moved the SIMM or DIMM sockets out of the way, but the processor remains a problem. ATX was designed in part to solve

ATX
With the need for a more integrated form factor which defined standard locations for the keyboard, mouse, I/O, and video connectors, in the mid 1990's the ATX form factor was introduced. The ATX form factor brought about many chances in the computer. Since the expansion slots were put onto separate riser cards that plugged into the motherboard, the overall size of the computer and its case was reduced. The ATX form factor specified changes to the motherboard, along with the case and power supply. Some of the design specification improvements of the ATX form factor included a single 20-pin connector for the power supply, a power supply to blow air into the case instead of out for better air flow, less overlap between the motherboard and drive bays, and integrated I/O Port connectors soldered directly onto the motherboard. The ATX form factor was an overall better design for upgrading.

micro-ATX
MicroATX followed the ATX form factor and offered the same benefits but improved the overall system design costs through a reduction in the physical size of the motherboard. This was done by reducing the number of I/O slots supported on the board. The microATX form factor also provided more I/O space at the rear and reduced emissions from using integrated I/O connectors.

LPX
White ATX is the most well-known and used form factor, there is also a non-standard proprietary form factor which falls under the name of LPX, and Mini-LPX. The LPX form factor is found in low-profile cases (desktop model as opposed to a tower or mini-tower) with a riser card arrangement for expansion cards where expansion boards run parallel to the motherboard. While this allows for smaller cases it also limits the number of expansion slots available. Most LPX motherboards have sound and video integrated onto the motherboard. While this can make for a low-cost and space saving product they are generally difficult to repair due to a lack of space and overall non-standardization. The LPX form factor is not suited to upgrading and offer poor cooling.

NLX
Boards based on the NLX form factor hit the market in the late 1990's. This "updated LPX" form factor offered support for larger memory modules, tower cases, AGP video support and reduced cable length. In addition, motherboards are easier to remove. The NLX form factor, unlike LPX is an actual standard which means there is more component options for upgrading and repair.

Assignment#2

How to install Microsoft Windows 2000.

Answer
Below are the steps required to install the standard version of Microsoft Windows 2000. It is important to realize that some computer manufacturers have their own proprietary install of Windows 2000 on a Recovery or Restore disc. Therefore, the below steps may not all apply to how Windows 2000 is installed on your computer. If the below steps do not apply to how Microsoft Windows 2000 is installed on your computer and you are unable to correctly reinstall Windows 2000, it is recommended you contact your computer manufacturer for additional help; Computer Hope will not know how to install Windows using your manufacturer's CD.

1.The standard Microsoft Windows 2000 CD is bootable. Therefore, start by placing the Windows 2000 CD in your computer and reboot.
2.As computer boots it may prompt you to press any key to boot from CD. Press any key. If you do not get this prompt or are unable to boot from the CD, please refer to document CH000217 for information on how to boot from a CD.
3.When prompted, press the enter key to setup Windows.
4.If you agree with the license agreement, press the F8 key.
5.If a previous Operating System was on the computer that you do not wish to keep, it is recommend you delete the partition before installing Windows. To delete the partition, select the partition you wish to delete and press the D key and then if you are sure, the L key.
6.Once the partition has been deleted, press the C key to create a new partition; specify the size of the partition you wish to create, by default this should be the maximum size of the partition.
7.Select the partition you want to install windows on and press enter to install, and C to continue with the setup
8.If you erased the partition, press enter to continue with the formatting of the NTFS file system.
9.Once the computer has rebooted, do not press any key to boot from the CD and let the computer boot and continue the remainder of the install for Windows 2000.
10.Complete the remainder of the setup by filling out or setting each of the remaining questions and/or options.

Windows XP Installation

Askpcexperts offer the solutions to the people whether the call for hardware, or software.

The important point is serving people in a way that what they are looking for regarding computer software or hardware issue.

For Windows XP Installation askpcexperts suggest you Step-by-Step Instructions.

Initially, you need to alter your BIOS boot array to boot from CD-ROM so that you may be able to boot your PC by the Installation CD.

Now wait for a while so that entire installation starts to duplicate the preliminary setup files to your PC.

Later than this finishes you'll be all set to begin directing the download process.

Later than this you may be asked if you desire to execute a new installation, mend an offered installation, or stop.

Now, if you want to perform a new installation then just Press the yes option.

Now go through all the terms and conditions and then press F8 to accept the agreement.

Later than this you are free to do partitions of hard drive and to make the space available for each partition.

After the some basic requirements like key no, drive name, user name and password, you get installed windows XP gradually.

Assignment#1

Motherboard

A motherboard is the central or primary circuit board making up a complex electronic system, such as a modern computer. It is also known as a mainboard, baseboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, a logic board, and is sometimes abbreviated as mobo.[1]
Most after-market motherboards produced today are designed for so-called IBM-compatible computers, which hold over 96% of the personal computer market today.[2] Motherboards for IBM-compatible computers are specifically covered in the PC motherboard article.
The basic purpose of the motherboard, like a backplane, is to provide the electrical and logical connections by which the other components of the system communicate.
A typical desktop computer is built with the microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices are typically attached to the motherboard via edge connectors and cables, although in modern computers it is increasingly common to integrate these "peripherals" into the motherboard.

Compnents and functionso

The 2004 K7VT4A Pro[3] motherboard by ASRock. The chipset on this board consists of northbridge and southbridge chips.
The motherboard of a typical desktop consists of a large PCB. It holds electronic components and interconnects, as well as physical connectors (sockets, slots, and headers) into which other computer components may be inserted or attached.
Most motherboards include, at a minimum:
sockets (or slots) in which one or more microprocessors (CPUs) are installed[4]
slots into which the system's main memory is installed (typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips)
a chipset which forms an interface between the CPU's front-side bus, main memory, and peripheral buses
non-volatile memory chips (usually Flash ROM in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS
a clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components
slots for expansion cards (these interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset)
power connectors and circuits, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards.[5]

Bootstrapping using the BIOS

A computer motherboard is a piece of hardware: it is the physical circuits and interconnecting wires that forms the backbone of a computer. It has logic circuits which can be manipulated and controlled by the operator, the software program, and input peripherals. But in order to begin operating from a power-off state, a motherboard must be bootstrapped (or simply, booted) by an initial set of software instructions. Without this vital software, the motherboard is rendered useless.
Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in a EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known as a Power On Self Test or POST. Errors during POST result in POST error codes, ranging from simple audible beeps from the speaker to complex diagnostic messages displayed on the video monitor.
The BIOS often requires configuration settings to be stored on the motherboard. Since configuration settings must be easily edited, these settings are often stored in non-volatile RAM (NVRAM) rather than in some sort of read-only memory (ROM). When a user makes configuration changes or alters the date and time of the computer, this small NVRAM circuit stores the data. Typically, a small, long-lasting battery (e.g. a lithium coin cell CR2032) is used to keep the NVRAM "refreshed" for many years. Therefore, a failing battery on a motherboard will produce the symptoms of a computer that cannot determine the correct date and time, nor remember what hardware configuration the user has selected. The BIOS itself is unaffected by the status of the battery.
When IBM first introduced the PC in the 1980s, imitations were quite common. (The physical parts which made up the motherboard were trivial to acquire.) However, the imitations were never successful until the IBM ROM BIOS was legally copied.[10] To understand why copying the BIOS was an important step, consider that the BIOS contained vital instructions which interacted with peripherals. Without these software instructions in the BIOS, a PC would not function properly. (In most modern computer operating systems, the BIOS is bypassed for most hardware functions, but in the 1980s, the BIOS served many vital low-level functions.)
So when Compaq Computer Corp. spent US$1 million to clone the IBM BIOS using reverse engineering, they became an elite computer manufacturer of IBM PC Clones. Phoenix Technology soon matched their feat and began reselling BIOSes to other clone makers.[11] It has been noted that Microsoft was more than happy to license the operating system (DOS), and IBM was more than happy to sue companies[12] that violated the copyright of their BIOS. But by documenting and publicizing the reverse engineering of the BIOS, Compaq and Phoenix were legally competing with IBM using their own copyrighted BIOS